
Class \^ }:i i 6 r 

Book J E^h'^ 



Copyright N^ 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



A [JNIT IN AGEICULTUEE 



AN OUTLINE COURSE OF ~STUDY AND STUDENT'S 

LABORATORY MANUAL, FOR TEACHERS AND 

STUDENTS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS 



BY 

JOSEPH DOLIVER ELLIFF 

u 
Inspector of Schools and Professor of High School Administration 
University of Missouri 



CHICAGO 
ROW, PETERSOX & COMPANY 



^ 



Copyright, 1911 

BY 

Joseph Doliver Elliff 



©CI. A 2 923 7 2 



<. 




K> 



INTEODUCTIOK 

"The most significaiit fact in the educational world to-day is the 
demand that agriculture be taught in the public schools. * * * j 
do not believe in that philosophy of education which would establish 
separate schools for the various industries and occupations of life." * 
If we accept these statements, the conclusion is obvious: we should 
teach agriculture in existing high schools and we should do it now. 

We should teach this subject in existing schools because : 

1. We are not ready to establish separate industrial or trade 
schools in this country. Such schools, if maintained at state expense, 
smack of European conditions and class distinctions. 

2. We could not meet the expense of a dual system of secondary 
schools, even if we were willing to do so. Most districts find some 
difficulty in providing adequately for existing schools. To divide our 
energies and resources between two systems of high schools, would 
mean the ultimate failure of both. 

3. The existing high schools can easily be made to fill the de- 
mand. When agriculture is put on an equal footing with other sub- 
jects, when teachers are employed who know and can teach the sub- 
ject, and when they are given time and equipment to teach it, the 
problem will be solved. 

4. Measured by any standards of educational aims and educa- 
tional values, courses in agriculture will compare favorably with 
other courses taught. 

We should introduce this subject immediately, for the very excel- 
lent reason that the demand must and will be met. Some states have 



* From an address by Df %n E. Davenport, College of Agriculture, Univer- 
sity of Illinois. 

3 



INTRODUCTION 



already waited too long and as a result now face the problem of a 
dual system of high schools. Certainly no greater misfortune than 
this could befall the public schools of any state. 

It seems to me that the growing demand of our people that the 
schools be brought into closer relationship with the life of today; 
that the courses of study take into account, in some measure at least, 
the dominant interests of the community; that, among other stand- 
ards of selection, we give some attention to the immediate interests 
and future prospects of our pupils; is not only fair and just, but is 
eminently sound pedagogy. If so, then the immediate problem con- 
fronting all of us who are interested in secondary education is, how 
to organize this course, how to iit it into the curriculum and how 
to teach it so as to secure its maximum educational value to our 
pupils. It is in the hope that I may contribute something to the 
solution of this problem, that this book is written. 

In the preparation of the book many sources of information have 
been drawn upon, but the plan is original. I am especially indebted 
to Dean F. B. Mumford, Professor J. C. Whitten and Mr. C. B. 
Hutchison, of the College of Agriculture, for valuable suggestions 
and corrections; and to Professor J. H. Coursault, of the School of 
Education, for reading the proof. J. D. Elliff. 



July 1, 1911. 



PURPOSE AND PLAN. 

The teaching of agriculture in the high schools is beset with 
many difficulties, among which are the following: 
1. Scarcity of trained teachers. 
3. But few good high school texts. 

3. A frequent misconception of the purpose and value of the 
course on the part of teachers and parents. 

4. Confusion of pupils and teachers due to the wide variety of 
suitable topics that may be studied and the great abundance of 
illustrative material. 

5. The still too common notion that agriculture is essentially a 
book study which can be taught independently of laboratory and 
field. 

6. Lack of definite form and content of the course. 

This book is an attempt to obviate some of these difficulties by: 

1. Planning a course that any wide awake, progressive teacher 
who has had any scientific training can teach successfully. 

2. Referring throughout to the best standard authors in order 
to give the student a broader and clearer view than is possible 
where only one book is used. 

3. Securing the cooperation of parents by bringing them into 
direct contact with the work of the pupils in the home garden and 
field. 

4. Making the best possible use of illustrative material in the 
laboratory, garden, and field, in order to give the students an oppor- 
tunity to observe and study the fundamental processes at first 
hand. 

5. Confining the work to a comparatively few essential topics 
and providing a definite amount of laboratory work on each. 

The bulletin consists of two parts. Part I is for the use of the 
teacher and contains : 

1. Suggestions concerning equipment. 

2. General suggestions. 

3. Outline course with lists of readings. 
Part II is a pupils' laboratory manual. 

5 



A UNIT IN AGRICULTURE 



PART I. 
I. SUGGESTIONS CONCERNING EQUIPMENT. 

A. Material to Be Collected by Teacher and Students at the Beginning of 

the Year. 

1 bushel clean sand. 

1 bushel sandy loam soil. 

1 bushel clay. 

8 quarts leaf mold (well rotted). 

1 bushel rich soil for use in growing liouse plants. 

Samples of commercial fertilizer, with analysis and prices given. 

Collection of economic seeds. 

(These may be secured free of U. S. Department of Agriculture. 
In ordering this collection, address U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Seed 
Laborator}^, Washington, D. C. When you order, send $1.50 to 
Mackall Bros., 9th and H Streets, N. E., Washington, D. C. This 
is to pay for the tray and vials used in packing the collection. 
Notify the Department that you have sent the money to pay for tray 
and vials.) 

Collections of economic seeds prepared hy teacher and students. 

1. Seeds of the following trees: oak, walnut, hickory, hazel, 
apple, pear, peach, cherry, plum, etc. 

2. Cereals: corn, wheat, oats, rye, barley, rice, etc. 

3. Grasses and clovers: red clover, alsike, white clover, alfalfa, 
timothy, millet, orchard grass, blue grass, Johnson grass, Bermu'la 
grass, cowpeas, redtop, etc. 

4. Common weeds : purslane, morning glory, Jamestown weed, 
cocklebur, cheat, ragweed, horseweed, etc. 

7 



8 A UNIT IN AGRI&ULTURE _^ 

B. Apparatus for Soil Studies. 

(Equipment for 20 students.) 
1 pair of balances weighing to grams or quarter ounces. (A 
four-pound postal scale may be used.) 
• 5 glass tumblers. 
10 wide mouthed 8-ounce bottles. 
10 pint glass fruit jars, 

5 thermometers. 
10 student lamp chimneys. 
10 shallow pans. 

1/. lb. glass tubing (small sizes). 
1/4 lb. glass rods (small sizes). 
Filter paper. 
Litmus paper. 
5 glass or tin funnels. 
5 small sieves of various meshes. 
10 six-inch flower pots. 

C. Material for Plant Studies. 

(Equipment for 20 students.) 

10 heavy dinner plates for seed germination. 

10 panes of glass (8x11 inches). 

10 small microscopes. 

Quantity of heavy cotton cloth for use in seed germination. 

10 shallow wooden boxes (12x18x3 inches) for growing cut- 
tings, etc. 

Apparatus for Babcock milk test (cost $5.00). 

If possible, not less than one-half acre of good land for a school 
garden and experiment field. (If the school has no such plot, land 
from a nearby farm may be rented.) 

Apparatus now in the physical, chemical, or biological laboratory 
need not be duplicated for agriculture. Much of the material can 
be made by the students or brouglit from their hom.es. The entire 
list should be purchased through a local dealer for about $18,00. 



A UNIT IN AGRICULTURE 



D. Text-Books. 

If one copy of each of the following four> books is purchased 
for each four pupils in the class, it will not be necessary for the 
students to purchase any book. This plan is strongly recommended. 
If any particular text is used, it should be one of these: 

Elements of Agriculture, Warren, Macmillan Co $1,10 

Agriculture, Jaclson & Daugheriy, Orange Judd Co 1,50 

Agriculture, Ferguson & Lewis, Ferguson Publishing Co,, 

Sherman, Texas 1.00 

First Book of Farming, Goodrich, Doubleday, Page & Co 1.00 

E. Books for Special Reference. 

Types and Breeds of Farm Animals, Plumh, Ginn & Co 2,00 

Physics of Agriculture, King, published by the author, Madi- 
son, Wis 1,75 

Nursery Book, Bailey, Macmillan Co 1,50 

Experiments with Plants, Osterhauf, Macmillan Co 1,25 

Soils, Lyon and Fippin, Macmillan Co 1.75 

The Soil, King, Macmillan Co 1,50 

Progressive Poultry Culture, Brigham, Torch Press, Cedar 

Papids, Iowa 1,30 

From the Secretary of Agriculture, Washington : 

I complete set Farmers' Bulletins, and extra copies, one for each 
member of the class, of Xos. 44, 123, 143, 154, 157, 187, 203, 
218, 229, 255 and 260. 

1 copy of list of bulletins for free distribution. 

1 copy of list of publications for sale. (Some of these may be 
obtained through tlie congressman of the district.) 

Year Books, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 

n, S. Bureau of Entomology, Circular No. 59. 

U. S. Office of Experiment Station, Circular No. 34. 

U. S. Bureau of Soil Study, Circulars Nos. 13, 195. 

U. S. Bureau of Plant Industry, Circular No. 30. 

1 set of your State Agricultural College Peports. 



10 A UNIT IN AGRICULTURE 

U. S. Bureau of Animal Industry, Bulletins Nos. 37, 113. 
Bureau of Education Bulletin No. 2 (1907). 
Note.— Where no price is given the books are free. 

F. Books Very Desirable, but Not Absolutely Essential. 

Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, (four volumes), Bailey, 

Macmillan Co $20.00 

(This is the very best work of the kind, and will be of 
much value to patrons as well as to students.) 

Principles of Fruit Growing, Bailey, Macmillan Co 1.50 

Plant Breeding, Bailey, Macmillan Co 1.25 

Vegetable Gardening, Bailey, Macmillan Co 1.50 

The Horse, Roberts, Macmillan Co 1.25 

Fertilizers, Voorhees, Macmillan Co 1.25 

Farm Science, International Harvester Co. (free). 

Corn, Bowman & Crossley, published Ijy the authors, Ames, 

Iowa 2.50 

Farm Buildings, Sanders Publishing Co., Chicago 2.00 

First Principles of Soil Fertility, Vivian, Orange Judd Co.. . . 1.00 

Soils, Burl-ett, Orange Judd Co 1.00 

G. Each School Should Subscribe for a Few Agricultural Papers. 



AJINIT IN AGRICULTURE 11 



II. GENEEAL SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHEES. 

1. The teacher should have a definite aim and plan for each 
lesson, a clear notion of what he is going to do, the sources of informa- 
tion and the material to be used. 

2. As a general rule, the laboratory and field work should pre- 
cede the study of the text. The following order is strongly recom- 
mended : 

a. The experiment, field or laboratory. Written or printed 

directions for the work should be given. See Part II. 
Pupils should be required to manipulate carefully, observe 
closely, tliink connectedly, and record in writing. 

b. The assigned readings. 

c. The recitation. Here tlie whole topic should be reviewed, 

put in correct form and reduced to use. An opportunity 
to show the bearing and use of the lesson on the home life 
of the child and the community should never be lost. 

4. Each student should keep a note book in which each labora- 
tory and field exercise and each demonstration is carefully recorded 
in good English. This note book should contain the date and sub- 
ject of each exercise, a statement of the materials used, description 
of the work done, and such illustrative drawings as may be necessary. 
In preparing an index to his note book, the student should specify 
whether the work is a laboratory exercise, a field exercise, or a demon- 
stration made by the teacher or by another student. The index should 
bear the teacher's endorsement certifying that it is a true abstract 
of the student's work. 

5. The course is planned for one year. At least two double 
periods per week should be given to individual laboratory or field 
work. It is expected that some schools will do more work than is 
outlined and that each will place some emphasis upon such topics 



1$ A UNIT ly AGRICULTURE 

as are of special interest to the community in ^vliicli the school is 
located. 

6. While certain substitutions may be made in both library and 
equipment, the lists given are considered minimum lists and should 
be provided. 

7. The course as planned presupposes no previous scientific 
training on the part of the pupil, and may be placed in any year 
of the high school. Students having had one or more sciences will 
do more work than those who have had no such training. If physical 
geograpliy is taught, it is strongly recommended that this suljject 
be given in the first year and agriculture in the second year. 

8. A heginning should he made. If the teacher cannot get 
everything he- needs, he should use what he has and can get. Much 
good work can be done with only such equipment as teacher and 
students can provide. 

9. Remember that agriculture cannot he taught successfully 
from a hook alone. To attempt to do so when there is such an abun- 
dance and variety of illustrative material is an unjustifiable waste of 
time. The pupil should not study about soil ; he should study soils. 

10. The required readings are given in Part I rather than in 
Part II for the reason that the teacher should carefully guide in the 
work. The teacher knows best what reading is necessary and when 
it is necessary. Each of the text-books gives some information con- 
cerning most of the lessons. For this reason, the texts are not given 
in the lists of readings. The teacher should select the best reference 
from each text. 

11. The teacher will find it necessary to exercise careful super- 
vision over the library. If possible, a separate case for the agricul- 
tural library should be provided. » 

12. The lesson should be studied by the teacher in advance of 
the assignment of class work. The required readings should be 
selected and placed on tlie blackboard as necessary from time to time. 



A UNIT IN AGRICULTURE 13 

13. The teacher should not be satisfied with the literature given. 
He will doubtless be able to find much additional that is as good or 
better. 

11. If possible a school garden in which each student has his 
own plot of ground should be provided. For suggestions concerning 
the equipment and management of the school garden, see Farmers' 
Bulletins, Nos. 91 and 218, U. S. Department of Agriculture, and 
Agi-icuUural Education, James A. Jewell, Bulletin No. 2 (1907), 
Bureau of Education, Washington, D. C. The school garden may be 
made the most interesting and profitable part of the work. 

15. The books for special and general reference should be kept 
by the teacher or librarian and sliould be taken from the library only 
by permission of the teacher. Many of these books will interest 
patrons. With these books as a basis, an agricultural library should 
be built up for the use of all the people in the community. The 
high school should be made a social and agricultural center for the 
community. 

16. While the topics may be studied in other than the order 
named, it is probable that the order given is best. In any event, 
soil study should precede plant study, and farm management should 
come last. 

17. It is believed that the average class can complete the course 
as planned and do all the work well in one year of nine months. 

18. If at any time suggestions are needed all the assistance pos- 
sible may be secured by addressing your State Agricultural College. 

19. Problems and review questions may be selected from the 
excellent lists in Warren's text. 

20. This course is largely a compilation of what seems to be 
the best features of several courses. It is at best only tentative and 
will doubtless need revision. To this end, the autlior will appreciate 
the criticisms and suggestions of teachers it. 



14 A UNIT IN AGRICULTURE 

III. OUTLINE COURSE. 

A. FARM CROPS. 
I. Corn. 



1. Study of a grain of corn. Ex. 1. 

2. Study of an ear of corn. Ex. 2. 

3. Study of complete plant. Ex. 3, 

4. Study of the three principal types of corn : 

(a) Pop corn. 

(b) Dent corn. 

(c) Sweet corn. 

5. A more careful study of the six important varieties: 

(a) Boone County White. 

(b) Reid's Yellow Dent. 

(c) St. Charles Wliite. 

(d) Leaming. 

(e) St. Charles Yellow. 

(f) Commercial White. 

6. Corn judging, use of score card. Exs. 4 and 5. 

7. How to select and store seed corn. 

8. , Testing seed corn for germination. Ex. 6. 

9. Methods of cultivation. 

(a) Relation of climate to corn production. 

(b) Preparation of soil for corn; fall plowing, spring plow- 

ing, depth of plowing. 

(c) Fitting the land after plowing. 

(d) Planting: time, manner, depth, distance apart, nuin- 

ber of grains in a hill, etc. 

(e) Tillage: tools, frequency, depth of tillage, etc. 

(f) Harvesting. 

10. Simple methods of corn improvement. 

(a) Ear to row plot in field. 

11. Enemies of corn and how to control or destroy them. 



A UNIT IN AGRICULTURE 15 

12. Corn and corn products: importance, use and value. 

Literature. 

The Nebraska Corn Book. 

Farm Science, pp. 21-39. 

Farmers' Bulletins, Nos. 199, 229, 253, 298, 303, 313. 

Bureau of Entomology, Circular No. 59. 

Office of Experiment Station, Circular No. 34 (rev.). 

Year Book, Reprints 446 (1907), 488 (1908). 

Bowman and Crossley, Corn. 

II. Wheat. 

1. Study of a grain of wheat. Ex. 7. 

2. Study of a head of wheat. Ex. 8. 

3. Study of a complete plant. Ex. 9. 

4. Principal varieties. 

5. Improving of wheat. 

(a) Crossing. 

(b) Selection of seed. 

(c) Selection of individual plants. 

6. Methods of cultivation. 

(a) Relation of climate to wheat production. 

(b) Plowing for wheat: time, depth. 

(c) Preparation of ground after breaking. 

(d) Sowing: broadcast, drill; amount of seed per acre. 

7. Harvesting and marketing wheat. 

8. Wheat and wheat products : importance and value. 

9. Enemies of wheat and how to fight them : 

(a) Eust. 

(b) Hessian fly. 

(c) Chinch bug. 

(d) Smut. 
Literature. 

Farmers' Bulletins, Nos. 132, 250. 



16 A UNIT IN AGRICULTURE 

Bureau of Soil, Circular Xo. 195. 
Bureau of Entomology, Circular No. 70. 

III. Oats. 

1. Study of a head of oats. Ex. 10. 

2. Principal varieties. 

3. Methods of cultivation. 

(a) Preparation of seed bed: plowing vs. disking. 

(b) Seeding: drilling vs. broadcasting; amount of seed 

per acre. 

4. Treating oats for smut. 

Litei'ature. 

Farmers' Bulletin, No. 250. 

Bureau of Plant Industry, Circular No. 30. 

IV. Shipping, Storing, Testing, Grading, and Marketing Corn, Wheat, and 

Oats. 

V. The Legumes. 

1. Identification and description of alfalfa, red clover, alsike, 
white clover, cow peas, soy beans, and vetch. Ex. 11. 

2. Methods of cultivation, character of soil, preparation of seed 
bed, inoculation of soil, amount of seed per acre, time of season to 
sow, methods and time of cutting and curing. 

3. Use and value of each. 
Literature. 

Farmers' Bulletins, Nos. 58, 89, 131, 194, 278, 289, 315, 318, 339, 
372. 

VI. The Grasses. 

1. Identification and description of blue grass, orchard grass, 
timothy, Bermuda grass, redtop and Johnson grass. 

Literature. 

Farmers' Bulletins, Nos. 66, 312. 

VII. Potatoes. 

1. A study of the Irish potato. Ex. 12. 



A UNIT IN AGRICULTURE IT 

8. Effect of large and small potatoes on yield. 

3. Selection of seed potatoes. 

4. Principal varieties. 

5. Methods of cultivation. 

6. Enemies of the Irish potato and how to fight them : scab, 

dry rot, potato beetles. 

7. Sweet potatoes : principal varieties, method of culture, yield 

and uses as compared with Irish potatoes. 

8. Improvement of potatoes. 

(a) Selection from high yielding hills. 
Literature. 

Farmers' Bulletins, Nos. 35, 91, 295, 324. 

Vin. Cotton. 

1. study of cotton plant. 

2. Principal types of cotton : 

(a) Sea Island type. 

(b) Upland type. 

3. Conditions of soil and climate favorable to the production of 

cotton. 

4. Planting and cultivation of cotton. 

(a) Preparation of soil. 

(b) Planting, 

(c) Cultivating. 

(d) Harvesting. 

5. Preparation for market. 

(a) Ginning, 

(b) Baling. 

6. Cotton seed and cotton-seed products, importance and use. 

7. Insect enemies of cotton and how to fight them. 

Literature. 

Farmers' Bulletins, Nos. 36, 48, 209, 211, 285, 286, 302, 314, 344. 

L\. Tobacco. 

1. Study of complete plant. 



18 A UNIT IN AGRICULTURE 



2. Conditions of soil and climate favorable to the production of 

tobacco. 

3. Principal varieties. 

4. Planting and cultivating tobacco: 

(a) Preparation of seed bed. 

(b) Time and manner of sowing the seed. 

(c) Preparation of the soil for crop. 

(d) Transplanting. 

(e) Cultivating. 

5. Harvesting tobacco. 

G. Curing and preparation for market. 

7. Insect enemies of tobacco and how to fight them. 

Literature. 

Farmers' Bulletins, Nos. 60, 82, 83, 126, 343. 

B, THE SOIL. 

1. Origin and formation of soil. Ex. 17. 

2. Composition of soil. Exs. 13, 14, 15, and 16. 

3. Soil water. Exs. 17, 19, 20. 

4. Experiments to show how plants absorb water from the soil. 

Exs. 21, 22, 23. 

5. Soil air. Ex. 25. 

6. Soil temperature. Ex. 18, 26. 

7. Soil drainage. Ex. 27. 

8. Meaning and method of tilling the soil. 

Literature. 

King, The Soil, chapters 2, 5, and 6. 

King, Physics of Agriculture. 

Any good Physical Geography, chapter on weathering. 

Farmers' Bulletins, Nos. 187, 245, 257, 266. 

Bureau of Soils, Circular No, 13. ' 

Year Book, Eeprint, No. 169 (1899). 



A UNIT IN AGRICULTURE 19 



C. PLANT PROPAGATION. . 
I. Propagation by Seeds 

1. Process of germination, 

(a) Absorption of moisture. 

(b) Chemical changes of compounds in the seed from 

insoluble to soluble substances. 

(c) The production of heat. 
3. Conditions of germination. 

(a) Vitality of seed. 

(b) Moisture. 
■(c) Heat. 

(d) Air. 

3. Vitalit}^ of seeds conditioned by : 

(a) Maturity. 

(b) Age. 

(c) Size. 

(d) Kind. 

(e) Extremes of temperature. 

(f ) Repeated germination. 

Exs. 28, 29, 30. 

4. Methods of production and preservation of most important 

seeds. 

5. Selecting seeds of different crops. 

6. Seed testing. 

(a) For germination (see Ex. 6). 

(b) For impurities. Ex. 31. 

7. Treatment of refractory seeds. 

(a) By freezing (hickory, oak, walnut, hazel, pear, apple, 

peach, plum, etc.). 

(b) By scalding (black locust, honey locust, Kentucky coffee 

bean). 

(c) By stratifying (berries, blackberry, strawberry, rasp- 

berry, rose). 



20 A UNIT IN AGEICULTURE 

II. Propagation Other Than by Seeds. Ex. 32. 

1. Spores — muslirooms, ferns. 

2. Root stocks — iris, calamus, June grass. 

3. Stolons or runners — strawberry. 

4. Suckers or root stalks — blackberry. 

5. Bulbs or corms — onion, crocus. 

6. Tubers — Irish potato, artichoke. 

7. Cuttings — grape, currant. 

8. Grafts — apple, pear. 

9. Layers — grape, ornamental vines. 

Exs. 33, 34, 35, 36, 37. 
Literature. 

Plant Propagation, Pub. School Bulletin, No. 1, pub. by Univer 

sity of Missouri. 
Farmers' Bulletin, Xo. 157. 
Bailey, Nursery Book. 

D. PLANT GROWTH. 

1. Conditions of plant growth. 

(a) Plant food. 

(b) Moisture. 

(c) Heat. 

(d) Air. 

• (e) Light. 

Exs. 38, 39, 40. 

2. Principal elements of plant food : oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, 

carbon, sulphur, phosphorous, potassium, calcium, 
magnesium, iron. 

3. Air-derived elements : oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon. 

Exs. 41, 42, 43, 44. (See any elementary cliemistry 
for 0., N., II., CO..) 

4. Soil-derived elements : nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, mag- 

nesium, iron, sulphur. Ex. 45. 



A UNIT IN AGRICULTURE 21 

5. Eelative amount of soil-derived and airnlerived plant food. 

6. Most important soil-derived elements : nitrogen, phosphorus 

and potassium. Ex. 46. 

E. ENEMIES OF PLANTS. 

1. Insects. 

(a) Biting insects, as potato beetle, cabbage worm, etc. 

(b) Sucking insects, as chinch bug, plant lice, squash bug, 

San Jose scale, etc. 

2. Diseases caused by certain bacteria, as fire blight in pear and 

apple tree. 

3. Fungus diseases, as brown rot on peaches, potato scab, rust 

on wheat and oats, etc. Ex. 47. 

4. Spraying to control insects and diseases. 

(a) Fungicides — Bordeaux mixture, lime-sulphur, etc. 

(b) Poisons for biting insects — Paris green, arsenate of 

lead, hellebore, etc. Ex. 48. 

(c) Contact remedies for sucking insects — lime-sulphur, 

tobacco, carbon bisulphide, etc. 

5. Identification of injurious insects and preparation of collec- 

tion. Exs. 49, 50, 51, 52, 53. 
Note. — This collection should be as complete as possible, well 
mounted and increased from year to year. It should include all the 
more common insect enemies of corn, wheat, potatoes, orchard fruits, 
and garden plants. 

Literature. 

Bailey, Nursery Book. 

Farmers' Bulletins, Nos. 91, 99, 126, 132, 155, 227, 231, 264, 275, 

281, 283, 316, 320, 329. 
Cyclopedia of American Agriculture. 

E. ANIMAL HUSBANDRY. 
I. The Horse. 

1. Origin and brief history. 

2, The two principal types. 



23 A UNIT IN AGRICULTURE 

(a) The speed type, (b) Tlio draft type. 

3. Breeds of horses. 

(a) Draft breeds — Percheroii, Clydesdale, English Shire. 

(b) Eoadsters — American trotter, American saddle horse, 

English thoroughbred, Hackney French coach. 

4. Care of horses. 
Literature. 

Plumb, Types and Breeds of Farm Animals, pp. 1-166. 
Bureau of Animal Industry Bulletins, Nos. 37, 113. 
Farmers' Bulletin, No. 170. 

II. Cattle. 

1. Origin and brief history. 

2. The two principal types. 

(a) Dairy cattle. 

(b) Beef cattle. Ex. 54. 

3. Breeds of cattle. 

(a) Beef breeds — Shorthorn, Hereford, Polled Hereford, 

Aberdeen-Angus, Polled Durham, Galloway. 

(b) Dairy breeds — Holstein-Friesian, Jersey, Guernsey, Ayr- 

shire, Dutch Belted, Brown Swiss. 

(c) Dual purpose breeds — Shorthorn (milking strains), 

Devon, Red Polled. 

4. Cattle products — meat, milk, leather, glue, etc. 
Literature. 

Plumb, Types and Breeds of Farm Animals, pp. 175-322. 
Farmers' Bulletins, Nos. 29, 42, 55, G3, 71, 106, 166, 183, 233, 241, 
350. 

III. Sheep. 

1. The two types. 

(a) Wool producing type. 

(b) Mutton producing type. 

2. Principal breeds. 

(a) Wool producing — American Merino, Delaine and Eam- 
bouillet. 



A UNIT IN AGRICULTURE 23 



(b) Mutton producing — Shropshire, Southdown, and Cots- 
wold. 
3. Care of sheep. 
Literature. 

Plumb, Types and Breeds of Farm Animals, pp. 333-454. 
Farmers' Bulletins, Nos. 96, 119, 159. 

IV. Swine. 

1. A study of the following principal breeds: Poland-China, 

Berkshire, Duroc-Jersey, Cliester White, Hampshire, 
Tamworth, Large Yorkshire. 

2. Care of swine. 

3. Diseases of swine and how to control or prevent them. 

(a) Hog cholera. 

(b) Tuberculosis. 
LAterature. 

Farmers' Bulletins, Nos. 100, 133, 233, 272, 296, 315, 329. 
Plumb, Types and Breeds of Farm Animals, pp. 467-554. 

V. Poultry. Chickens. 

1. The four principal types. 

(a) Meat type. 

(b) Egg type. 

(c) General purpose type. 

(d) Ornamental type. 
3. Breeds. 

(a) Meat type or Asiatic class — Brahma, Cochin, Langshan. 

(b) Egg type or Mediterranean class— Legliorns, Minorca, 

Black Spanish. Ex. 55. 

(c) General purpose or American class — Plymouth Rock, 

Wyandotte, Phode Island Red. 
3. Care of poultry. 

(a) Feeding chickens. 

(b) The incubator. 

(c) The chicken house. Ex. 56. 



24 A UNIT IN AGRICULTURE 

4. Poultry and poultry products, their growing importance, value 
and use. 
Literature. 

Farmers' Bulletins, Nos. 51, 128, 182, 236, 281, 287. 

VI. Live Stock Judging. 

1. Horse. 

(a) Heavy horse. Ex. 57. 

(b) Light horse. Ex. 58. 

2. Cattle. 

(a) Beef cattle. Ex. 59. 

(b) Dairy cattle. Ex. 60. 

3. Sheep. 

(a) Mutton. Ex. 61. 

4. Swine. Ex. 62. 

VII. Feeding. 

1. Composition of food plants: (a) water, (b) ash, (c) protein, 

(d) fats and carbohydrates. 

2. Percentage of each in different plants. 

3. Function of each constituent. 

4. Composition of animal tissue. (Compare with animal food 

plants.) 

5. Digestion and palatability of foods. 

6. The balanced ration. 

C. PROBLEMS OF FARM MANAGEMENT. 

I. Choice of Farm Determined By: 

(1) purpose, (2) capital, (3) character of soil, (4) climate, (5) 
nearness to market, (6) improvements, (7) environ- 
ment — roads, schools^, factories, etc. 

II. The Farm Home or Dwelling: 

(1) location, (2) character and material, (3) number and arrange- 
ment of rooms, (4) drainage, (5) water supply, (6) 



A UNIT IN AGRICULTURE 25 

lighting, (7) heating and ventilation, (8) furniture, 
(9) environment — shade, lawn,* other buildings, etc. 
Exs. 63, 64. 
Literature. 

Farmers' Bulletins, Nos. 126, 155, 270, 317, 342. 

III. Other Farm Buildings: 

(1) number, (3) purpose, (3) location, (4) material, (5) adapt- 
ability, (6) sanitation. Ex. 65. 
Literature. 

Farmers' Bulletins, Nos. 32, 126, 136, 225, 227. 

IV. Maintenance of Soil Fertility. 

1. Fundamental importance of this problem. (Review work on 

soils and plant growth.) 

2. The problem involves : 

(a) The topograjihy of the land. 

(b) The physical properties of the" soil. 

(c) The chemical constituents of the soil. 

3. Means of maintaining soil fertility. 

(a) Crop rotation. 

(b) "Use of fertilizers. Ex. 66, 67. 
Lito7-aturc. 

Missouri Experiment Station, Circular No. 38 (1910). 

[Best.] 
Farmers' Bulletins, Nos. 44, 77, 192, 222, 225, 245, 257, 266, 278, 
327, 342. 

Vivian, First Principles of Soil Fertility. 

V. Improvement of Farm Animals. 

1. Determining what animals shall be grown on the farm. 

2. Importance of selecting only the best breeds. 

3. Economy in feeding — the balanced ration. 

4. Study of comparative value of common foods at current prices 



26 A UNIT IN AGRICULTURE 

Literature. 

Plumb, Types and Breeds of Farm Animals. 

Farmers' Bulletins, Nos. 22, 49, 71, 96, 100, 137, 170, 205, 
364, 378. 

VI. Farm Machinery. 

A study of the best types of farm macliinery in use in the com- 
munity. 

Literature. 

Farmers' Bulletins, Nos. 303, 321, 347. 

VII. Additional Topics for Special Study. 

(Select at will according to the dominant interests of the com- 
munity. ) 

1. The home garden. Ex. 68. 
Literature. 

Farmers' Bulletins, Nos. 94, 154, 218, 255. 

2. Farm forestry. Ex. 69. 
Literature. 

Farmers' Bulletin, No. 173. 
Year Book, 1903, pp. 279-88. 

3. Agricultural nmnufacturing. Ex. 70. 

4. Special study of the dairy. 

(a) Butter making — the Babcock milk test, Ex. 71. 

(b) Cheese making. 
Literature. 

Farmers' Bulletins, Nos. 29, 55, 166, 201, 227, 241. 



A UNIT IN AGRICULTUR3 27 



PART II. 

STUDENTS' LABOEATORY MANUAL. 

FARM CROPS. 
Ex. 1. A Grain of Corn. 

Soak a few grains of corn in hot water for twenty minutes. With 
a small sharp knife, remove the tij) cap. This tip cap is a small cap 
covering the end of tliC kernel. Beginning at the end where the hull 
has been broken by the removal of the tip cap, pull off the hull in 
strips. The part immediately under the hull and covering almost or 
quite all of the kernel is called the horny gluten. Carefully remove 
it by shaving it off with a sharp knife. Now carefully remove the 
germ. Notice carefully the size, position and parts of the germ. After 
the tip cap, hull, horny gluten, and germ have been removed, there 
remains only starch, of which there are two kinds — the horny starch 
and the white starch. The horny starch lies next to the horny gluten 
on the back and sides of the kernel. The white starch occupies the 
crown end of the kernel above the germ, and it also nearly surrounds 
the germ toward the tip of the kernel. Separate, as far as possible, 
the horny starch and the white starch. How many and what distinct 
parts have we found ? Make an enlarged drawing of grain of corn, 
front view, showing and naming the parts. 

Ex. 2. An Ear of Corn. 

Material : three or four different varieties of corn grown in the 
neighborhood. Table the varieties by name. Observe carefully and 
note the following : ( 1 ) color of grain, color of cob, and whether sur- 
face of ear is smooth, rough or very rough; (2) number of rows, num- 
ber of grains in a row; (3) total number of grains on the ear; (4) 
whether the rows are straight or twisted, and, if twisted, which way ; 
(5) whether the grains are closely packed or loose, firmly attached to 
the cob or loosely attached; (6) whether shape of ear is cylindrical, 
conical, or irregular. Do you think the ear is well proportioned? 



28 A UNIT IN AGRICULTURE 

Note the butt of the ear and describe as even, sliglitly rounded. \\el! 
rounded, enlarged, etc. Describe and draw the tip of the ear. Notice 
carefully the shape of the grains and their position on the cob. 
Measure length of ear, circumference of ear. Find weight of corn and 
weight of cob. Give percentage of grain. (The percentage should be 
from 86 to 90.) 

Ex. 3. The Corn Plant. 

Go to any corn field near the school. 
Observe closely and note : 

1. Name of variety. 

2. Size of field. 

3. Height of plant (average of ten plants). 

4. Number of leaves on plant (average of ten plants). 

5. Number of leaves below ear (average of ten plants). 

6. Average leaf surface (take the product of the length and 

breadth of the average leaf times the number of leaves). 

7. Husks : whether abundant, medium or scarce. 

8. Husks : whether close, medium or loose. 

9. Height of ear above ground (average of ten plants). 

10. Position of ear on the stalk: whether pendant, horizontal or 

pointed upward. 

11. Shank: whether long or short, strong or weak. 

Measure ten hills square; give number of ears in one hundred 
hills. Count the missing hills in the plot. Determine the percentage 
of stand. Give number of stalks having two ears and number having 
no ear. Find distance apart of hills each way. Give number of hills 
per acre. Measure off one acre which represents a good average of 
the field; husk one-twentieth of this, and, after weighing same care- 
fully, estimate the average yield of field. If hills of corn are 3 feet 6 
inches each way, how many hills to the acre? 

If, in a field of corn planted 3 feet 6 inches each way, there is 
on the average li/o lbs. of corn to each hill, allowing 10 lbs. to the 
bushel for shrinkage, what is the yield per acre ? 



A UNIT IN AGRICULTURE 29 

If corn is planted 3 feet 6 inches each way, and when mature is 
cut and put in shocks, each shock containing Corn from an area 14 
hills square, how many shocks to the acre? How many, if shocks are 
16 hills square? 

The following tables will assist in making accurate estimate of the 
amount of land in different fields or plots : 

10 rods X 16 rods = 1 acre. 
8 rods X 20 rods ^^ X acre. 
5 rods X 32 rods = 1 acre. 

4 rods X 40 rods = 1 acre. 

5 yds. X 968 yds. = 1 acre. 
10 yds. X 484 yds. = 1 acre. 
20 yds. X 242 yds. = 1 acre. 
40 yds. X 121 yds. = 1 acre. 
80 yds. X 601/2 yds. = 1 acre. 

220 ft. X 198 ft. = 1 acre. 
440 fix 99 ft.= 1 acre. 
110 ft. X 396 ft. = 1 acre. 

60 ft. X 726 .ft.= 1 acre. 
120 ft. X 363 ft. = 1 acre. 
240 ft. X 181.5 ft. = 1 acre. 
200 ft. X 108.9 ft. = i/o acre. 
100 ft. X 145.2 ft. = iZ acre. 

10 square chains = 1 acre. 

160 square rods = 1 acre. 

4,840 square yards = 1 acre. 

43,560 square feet = 1 acre. 

640 square acres = 1 square mile. 

36 square miles (6 miles sq.)=l township. 

Ex. 4. Corn Judging — Single Ear. 

A good ear of corn may be described as follows : — The ear should 
be from 9 to 10y2 inches long and from 7 to 7I/2 inches around, meas- 
ured at a point 1-3 the distance from the butt to the tip. It should 



30 A UNIT IN AGRICULTURE 

be practically the same diameter from end to end; that is, it should 
not be distinctly tapering. The rows of kernels should be straight 
and the kernels should be of such a shape that they will fit tightly 
together with no furrows left between the rows. The butts should be 
well rounded out with kernels evenly arranged around a cup shaped 
cavity about one inch across. The tips should be well filled out to the 
end with deep, even kernels. The kernels of the ear should all be 
very nearly the same size and shape. They should be wedge shaped, 
but not pointed ; they should have large, smooth hearts or germs, not 
blistered or discolored. The length of the kernel should be about II/2 
times as great as its width at the widest part, and it should be of the 
same thickness from one end to the other. The kernels should show 
no mixture with corn of the opposite color. The cob should be of 
medium size, neither very large nor very small. 

Secure a number of ears of corn and notice the faults of each. 
Pick out the ones that are most nearly perfect. Take an ear and 
write a description of it, telling in what points it is good and in what 
points it is imperfect. 

Lay five ears of corn on the table and try to pick out the one hav- 
ing the least number of faults. Go over the various points of the 
ear as given in Lesson 4, in the description of a good ear, and place 
that ear which is most nearly perfect on the left. Put the next best 
one second, the third best third, and so on. In what ways is No. 1 
better than No. 2 ? Give the good and bad points of each ear. 
Ex. 5. Corn Judging — Use of Score Card. 

At fairs and other places where corn is shown for premiums, it is 
customary to show ten ears together as a sample. Consequently, in 
judging such samples, ten ears must be considered instead of a single 
ear. To help in this judging, a card giving a scale of points arranged 
to represent the different characters of the ears is used. This is called 
a score card, and the one that is used in Missouri is as follows: 

Scale of Points 

Maturity and soundness 10 

Uniformity of ears 10 



A UNIT IN AGRICULTURE 31 

Length 10 

Circumference ► . . . . 5 

Purity of cobs 5 

Purity of kernels. 5 

Uniformity of kernels 10 

Shape of kernels 10 

Character of germ 10 

Space between rows 5 

Butts 5 

Tips 5 

Size of col) 10 

Total 100 

Following is an explanation of how to use the score card : 

Maturity and soundness. (10.) 

An ear that is not mature will not be perfectly tight. This is the 
best determined by giving the ear a slight twist. The kernels 
should all be sound and free from decay. For every ear not 
perfectly mature and sound, deduct one point. 
Uniformity of ears. (10.) 

All ears in the sample should be as nearly alike in every way as 
possible. This is very important. They should be the same 
in size, in color and in character of kernel. For every ear 
strikingly different from the average, deduct one point. 
Shape of ears. (10.) 

Ears should be practically the same diameter from one end to the 
other. For each ear that is distinctly tapering, deduct one 
point. 

Length. (10.) 

Ears should be between 9 and lOi/^ inches in length. For every 
ear that is under 8^ inches or for every ear that is over 10^ 
inches, deduct one point. 



33 A UNIT IN AGEICULTURE 



Circumference. ( 5. ) 

Ears should he from 7 to T^/^ inches aroimd, measured at a point 
1-3 the distance from hutt to tip. For each ear less than 7 
inches or over 7% inclies, deduct one-half point. 
Purity of coh. (5.) 

Yellow corn should have red cobs, and white corn, white cobs 
(with the exception of St. Charles White). A single ear with 
a cob of the wrong color bars an exhibit from competing for 
prizes. 
Purity of I'erneJ. (5.) 

For every mixed kernel in the exhibit, deduct one-fourth point. 
Ufiiformity of Irrnels. (5.) 

All ears should have kernels of approximately the same size. For 
every ear having kernels larger or smaller than the average, 
deduct one-half point. 
Shape of l-ernels. (5.) 

Take out two kernels from the middle of each ear. Deduct one- 
half point for each ear having poorly shaped kernels. 
Character of germ. (10.) 

Examine kernels of each ear as to character of germ and deduct 
one point for each ear having poor germs. 
Space hettveen voids. (5.) 

For each ear having wide furrows between the rows of kernels, 
deduct one-half point. 
Butts. (5.) 

For each poor butt, deduct one-half point. 
Tips. (5.) 

For each poor tip, deduct one-half point. 
Size of Coh. (10.) 

For each ear having a cob either too large or too small, deduct one 
point. 



A UNIT IN AGRICULTURE 33 

Ex. 6. Testing Seed Corn for Germination. 

Make a box 4 inches deep, 14 inches long, and 12 inches wide» 
Fill the box half full of moist earth, packing it down firmly so that 
the surface is even and smooth. Ilule a piece of white cloth, the size 
of the box, into squares 2 inches each ^ay. Number the squares 1, 2, 
3, 4. . . .30. Place the cloth on the soil in the box and tack it to the 
corners and edges of the box to keep it in place. Number thirty ears 
of corn. Take ten grains from each ear — from middle, tip, and butt. 
Place these grains on the square corresponding to the number of the 
ear. When all the samples are in place, cover with a piece of cheese 
cloth the size of the box. Now cover with a heavier cloth larger than 
the box and over this place about 2 inches of moist earth. Put in a 
warm place and let it remain ten days. 

Carefully remove the cover. Now make a careful study of the 
ten kernels in each square and carefully note those which either failed 
to grow or are weak in vitality. In how many and in which squares 
did all the kernels germinate? In how many and in which squares 
did no kernels germinate ? If you had planted all the seed from these 
thirty cars, what per cent of a stand of corn would you have? 

Ex. 7. Study of a Grain of Wheat. 

Soak a few' grains of wheat in warm w^ater. Using a lens and a 
small sliarp knife, try to remove the coverings of the grain. There 
are four of these, three epidermic layers and one testa or true seed 
coat. These coats constitute the bran and make up about 11 per cent 
of the grain. 

Imm.ediately under the testa, find the endosperm. This makes 
up the large part of the seed and is the flour of commerce. Notice 
the position, form and size of the embryo. 

Ask your teacher to cut a thin slice across the grain, place in a 
drop of w^ater on a glass slide, cover with a cover glass and place 
under the Ioav powder of the compound microscope. 

Observe carefully and draw, naming the parts. 



34 A UNIT IN AGRICULTURE 

Ex. 8. Study of a Head of Wheat. 

Observe that tlie grains are arranged in groups on either side of 
the stem. A single group is called a mesh. How many meshes on 
this head? How are they arranged? How many grains in a mesh? 
Is the number uniform? Are the meshes all filled? Find a mesh 
with three grains, with four, with five. Carefully remove the cover- 
ing from a single grain. How many coverings are there? How is 
the grain attached? 

Ex, 9. The Wheat Plant. 

Pull up an entire wheat plant. How many stalks in the hunch? 
Does the number vary with different bunches? How many joints in 
each stalk ? How many leaves on each stalk ? Observe the form and 
arrangement of the roots. From the data in Ex. 8 and 9, estimate 
the number of grains tliat is produced by one grain. 

Ex. 10. Study of a Head of Oats. 

How does the oat liead differ from the head of wheat? In what 
are they alike? Make drawing. Carefully remove a single grain. 
Notice the hard outer cover. Eemove the hard cover and make an 
enlarged drawing of the kernel, naming parts. 

Ex. 11. Study of the Legumes. * 

Material: red clover, alsike, white clover, alfalfa, soy beans, cow 
peas. The specimens should be fresh, but dried ones may be used. 
Study each plant separately. 

1. Observe the number, arrangement, size and shape of leaves, 
and make drawing of a leaf. 

2. Observe the number and height of the stems, and the diameter 
of stem an inch above the ground. Are the stems erect, spreading, 
decumbent, or training? 

3. Are there many, few or no branches? 

4. If in bloom, notice the place, form, color, and size of blossoms. 
Make drawing of a blossom. 

5. If in seed, note kind, number, and shape of seed pods. Note 



A UNIT IN AGRICULTURE 35 

number of seed in pod and size and form of single seed. Draw seed 
pod, using magnifier. Make enlarged drawing of a single seed. 

6. Observe carefully the form, size, number and length of the 
roots. Look closely for small nodules on the roots. These nodules 
are very important and we shall learn more about them later. Make 
drawing of root. 

Ex. 12. Study of the Irish Potato. ^ 

Material : potatoes, preferably of several varieties, with some 
showing scab, dry rot, etc. 
Note the following: 

1. Variety: whether early, medium, or late. 

2. Shape : whether cylindrical, oval, flat oval, compound, regu- 
lar or irregular. 

3. Size: whether large, medium, small, uniform or not uniform. 

4. Shape of e3^es: whether deep, medium or shallow; oval or nar- 
row and elongated; large or small (small as compared with size of 
tuber) ; numerous or few ; imiformly distributed or mainly at bud 
end; ridge prominent or ridge not prominent. 

5. Color: whether yellowish white, pink or russet. 

6. Texture of skin: whether corky, netted or lenticoled; glossy 
smooth or dull smooth. 

7. Color of skin : whether yellowish white, russet, red, pink or 
blue ; uniform or not uniform. 

8. General characteristics: whether clean or dirty; cracked or 
not cracked; if diseased, whether scab, dry rot or blight. 

9. Color of flesh: whether white, yellowish, pink or blue. 
Make a drawing of the tuber, showing eyes, and indicate which 

is the stem end of the tuber. 

SOILS. 
Ex. 13. Study of Soil. 

Material : a handful of soil from the school yard. What is the 
color of this soil ? Are all the particles the same color ? Wet a little 



36 -1 UNIT IN AGRICULTURE 

and observe wlietlier there is a change in color. Feel the soil. Is it 
smooth, sticky, or gritty? Do you find small pieces of rock in it? 
Examine closely with the hand glass and describe fully all that you 
see. Try to find out what the hard particles are. If they will scratch 
glass, we may l^e quite sure that they are some form of quartz. Put 
some of the soil in a large test tube, cover with water, shake thorough- 
ly and set aside for a few minutes. Which part of the soil goes to the 
bottom of the tube ? Which next ? Make a drawing of the soil in the 
tube. By digging a few holes in the home garden or field, try to find 
out whether the arrangement of the soil particles is the same as 
in the tube. Examine the soil along a stream to see whether you 
can find illustrations of sorting soil by water. Pour off the water 
from the soil in the tube, and evaporate to dryness. Is there any- 
thing left? What do you suppose it is? What does this prove? 
Examine the inside of a tea kettle for a scale of covering. How did 
it get there? Its presence there proves what? 

Ex. 14. Study of Soil (continued). 

Material : a handful of soil from the school yard. Carefully weigh 
a small handful of the soil. Now dry thoroughly, being careful not 
to burn any part of it, and weigh it again. Account for any diff^erence 
in weight. The loss in weight is what per cent of the weight before 
drying? Now place the dry soil in a sand crucible or iron pan and 
heat hot. Cool, weigh, and examine carefully. Account for any 
loss in weight. Do you believe that you could burn all of the soil ? 
Do you notice any difference in color after burning? Do you know 
what it was that burned? 

Ex. 15. Study of Soil (continued). 

Eepeat Exercise 14, using tlie richest black soil you can get from 
the home garden. Compare the results wdth those obtained in Exer- 
cise 14. Compare results with those obtained by one of your class- 
mates who used the same soil. Is there substantial agreement? Try 
to account for any difference. 



A UNIT IN AGRICULTURE SI 

Ex. 16. Field Lesson. 

Material : a suitable field as near the schoollinuse as possible. Do 
you find any ledges of outcropping rock? If you do, break off a small 
piece and compare the freshly broken surface with the outside or 
weathered surface. Note carefully any difference. Do you find any 
boulders or pebbles ? Break one open and compare the freshly broken 
surface with the outside surface as before. Are the boulders and 
pebbles of the same material as the rock in the ledge ? Select a piece 
of each different rock you find to take to school for future study. 

Look along the bed of a stream for pebbles. (If there is no stream 
at liand, this work may bo done at another time and place by indi- 
vidual pupils.) ITow do the pebljles in the bed of the stream com- 
pare in size and shape with those back from the stream? How do 
you account for the difference? 

Find some good rich soil and dig a hole about 18x12 inches and 
18 inches to 2 feet deep. Observe closely the material and the color 
at different depths. Notice especially the amount of black soil. 

Make a drawing of one side of the wall. Repeat this exercise by 
digging the hole on a steep slope. Account for any differences in 
the soil at the two places. What is subsoil? Which do you think 
will grow the better crop, the side hill or the lowland? Why? From 
your observation of farm crops, can you state whether this is gen- 
erally true? 

Ex. 17. Soil Texture. 

Material : sand, clay, and loam — two small fruit jars full of each, 
from the farms in the neighborhood of the school, if possible. Label 
each jar and set one jar of each aside for use in Exercise 18. Com- 
pare the three kinds of soil as to color, texture, and amount of humus. 
Put some of each kind in a large test tube, cover with water, shake 
thoroughly and set aside. Which settles most rapidly ? Most slowly ? 
Which contains particles that float ? If these soils were poured into a 
running stream which would be carried farthest ? Put a little hydro- 
chloric acid on each and note the result. Mix the three samples in a 



38 A UNIT IN AGRICULTURE 

large test tube or long 1)ottle, cover with water, shake thoroughly and 
set aside. Which soil is at the bottom? Which at the top? Make 
drawing of tube. Compare with results of Exercise 13. Dry some 
of each kind of soil as in Exercise 14. Weigh very carefully about 
the same amount of each, and put in separate beakers. (Each soil 
should be pulverized after drying.) Pour water into each beaker 
from a graduate containing a measured quantity, until the water 
rises to the surface of the soil. Find how much water it takes in each 
case, recording results as follows : 

Sand Clay Loam 

Volume of soil 

Volume of water added 

Per cent of air space 

The amount of water is the approximate measure of the air space. 
Which soil contains the most air? Which least? 

Ex. 18. Temperature of Soils. 

Material: the three jars of soil set aside in Exercise 17. Into 
each jar pour sufficient water to wet thoroughly. In each jar put a 
thermometer so placed that the bulb is just below the surface of the 
soil. Weigh each jar and set the jars close together in the window 
and where the sunlight can strike fairly. Take the temperature and 
weight of each jar at the same hour of the day on alternate days 
for one week. Record the results as follows : 

Sand Clay Loam 

Weight first observation 

Weight second observation 

Weight third observation 

Temperature first observation 

Temperature second observation 

Temperature third observation 

Which soil shows the highest temperature? Which the lowest? 
From which does the water evaporate most rapidly? From which 
does it evaporate most slowly ? What is meant by a warm soil ? By a 



A UNIT IN AGEICULTUBE 39 



cold soil? By a dry soil? By a wet soil? Review Exercise 14 and 
state whether there is any relation between soil ^temperature and air 
space. What are some of the ways in which a cold soil may be made 
warmer ? 

Ex. 19. Water Capacity of Soils. 

Material: different kinds of soils, five long-necked bottles with 
the bottoms broken off, rack for holding bottles, five tumblers. Tie a 
small piece of cheese cloth over the mouth of each bottle, place in the 
frame upside down with a tumbler under each. Fill the bottles to 
the same height, about two-thirds full, with different kinds of soil. 
Firm the soils by shaking the bottle. With watch in hand and glass 
of water held as ne?r as possible to the soil, pour water into one of 
the bottles Just fast enough to keep the surface of the soil covered. 
Note how long l^efore the water begins dropping into the tumbler 
below. Do the same with each of the other bottles. Which takes in 
water most rapidly ? Which most slowly ? Which is the most porous ? 
Which is the least porous ? Compare results with results in Exercise 
38. What happens to the less porous soils when a heavy shower of 
rain comes? Eepeat the experiment Avith any two of the soils, pack- 
ing the soil in the bottle tightly before pouring in the water. What 
is the (ffect of packing? Does this experiment have any bearing on 
farm practice ? What bearing has it ? Which of the soils could absorb 
the heaviest shower ? Which soil continued to drip longest ? Which 
would drain most readily? 
Ex. 20. Capillarity of Soils. 

Material : same as in Exercise 19. Fill each bottle with a differ- 
ent kind of dry soil. Fill each tumbler about two-thirds full of water 
and set the bottles, neck down, in the tumblers so that the cheese 
cloth is just above the bottom of the tumbler. Observe the rise of 
water in the different soils. Note how high it rises in each bottle and 
the time it takes. In which soil does the water rise most rapidly? 
In which to the greatest height? Which soil draws up the greatest 
amount of water ? This can be determined by measuring or weighing 



40 A UNIT IN AGRICULTURE 

the water in the tumbler before and after the experiment. This power 
of soils to raise water from below is called ca^^illarity, and the water 
is called capillary water. Because of this capillarity, plants are able 
to get moisture from the subsoil in time of drought. What effect on 
water capacity does the addition of organic matter have? Give one 
method by which the farmer may increase the amount of organic mat- 
ter in the soil. 

Water tliat percolates through the soil until it reaches the rock 
or hard pan is called soil water. How deep are the wells in your 
neighborhood ? Are they deeper on the upland than on the lowland ? 
Is the impervious layer rock or clay? Are there any springs? If so, 
observe the character of the strata over which the water flows. 

Ex. 21. Absorption of Moisture from the Soil. 

Material : a wide mouthed bottle, an egg, a glass tube 3 or 4 
inches long and about I/4 i^^cli in diameter, a candle and a piece of 
wire about 5 inches long. 

Eemove part of the shell, about the size of a dime, from the large 
end of the egg, without breaking the skin beneath. In tlie same man- 
ner remove a piece of shell, no larger than the diameter of the glass 
tube, from the small end of the egg. Cut from the lower end of the 
candle a piece aljout i^ inch long and l)orc a hole in this the size of 
the glass tube. Soften one end of the piece of candle and stick it on 
the small end of the egg so that the hole in the candle covers the hole 
in the egg, making a water-tight joint. Place the glass tube in the 
hole in the candle, cement closely as before. Now run the wire down 
the tube and break the skin of the egg. Now fill the bottle with 
water until it overflows and set the egg over the mouth of the bottle, 
small end up. In nn hour or so, the white of the egg will be seen ris- 
ing in the glass tube. Tlie water enters the egg through the skin and 
forces the white to rise in the tube. The skin itself has no openings 
that can be seen even with a microscope. This process by which a 
liquid passes through a membrane is called osmosis. It is by this 



A UNIT IN AGRICULTUEE 41 

process that water containing plant food enters the fine root hairs of 
plants. 

Ex. 22. Absorption of Moisture from Soil (continued). 

Material : thistle tube, piece of waste bladder, Jar, water and 
molasses. Partly fill the thistle tube with molasses. Tie the bladder 
over the large end of the tube and insert into the jar of water. Put 
the tube into the jar so that the molasses in the stem is just on the 
level with the water in the jar. Fasten the tube in this position and 
observe what happens. Explain. 

Ex. 23. Rise of Water in Plants. 

Pill a tumbler one-third full of hike warm water colored with a 
few drops of red ink or some brilliant coloring matter. Place in the 
colored water the freshly cut stem of a white carnation, lily or almost 
any soft green plant. Observe closely and explain what happens. 

Ex. 24. Rise of Water in Plants (continued). 

Pull up any good sized green plant, as, for instance, a bunch of 
clover. Weigh it carefully and record the weight. Now dry the plant 
thoroughly, being careful not to burn it, and weigh again. What are 
the percentages of dry material and water as shown by the weights? 
Estimate the number of pounds of water in one ton of freshly cut 
clover hay. 

Note. — It has been found that corn roots take up over 300 lbs. 
of water for each pound of dry matter produced. Oats and clover 
take up 500 lbs. What two important facts are shown by this experi- 
ment ? 

Ex. 25. Effects of Excluding Air from the Soil. 

Into a fruit jar or water-tight can containing a healthy growing 
plant, pour water until the surface of the soil is covered to the depth 
of one inch. Keep the soil covered witli water, observe the plant 
closely for several days and note results. Have you noticed the effects 
of standing water on young corn ? If not, do so. Would you say the 
plant has been smothered or has it been drowned? Why? Can you 
susfGfcst a method of soil ventilation? 



42 A UNIT IN AGRICULTURE 

Ex. 26. Soil Temperatufe. 

Eeview Exercise 19. Which of the soils was warmest? What 
coldest? In the same jar of soil insert two thermometers, one to the 
depth of 2 inches and one 6 inches. Do you notice any difference in 
the temperature shown? Try this experiment out of doors and note 
the temperature of the. air as shown by the third thermometer sus- 
pended a foot above the ground. Make three observations the same 
day, one at 8 :00 a. m., one at 2 :00 p. m. and one at 6 :00 p. m. Is 
the surface of the soil warmer or colder than the air? Is this true 
of all times of the day? If not, when? Is the average temperature 
of the surface soil higher or lower than the average temperature of 
the air? Which is more nearly uniform, the temperature of the air, 
the surface soil or the soil at a depth of 6 inches? Do you know 
whether each of your conclusions above will hold for different seasons 
of the year? Should seeds be planted deeper or shallower in early 
spring or late spring? Why? 
Ex. 27. Soil Drainage. 

Take two flower pots the same size and label them 1 and 2 re- 
spectively. In No. 1 pour melted paraffin or wax to plug up the hole 
so that no air can get through. In the Ijottom of No. 2 put about one 
inch of fine pebbles or coarse sand. Nearly fill each pot with a 
mixture of good soil and sand, three parts soil and one part sand. 
Place in each pot a healthy growing plant of the same kind and size. 
Sprinkle each with water till the soil is saturated and place the pots 
in a sunny window. In each pot place a thermometer with a bulb at 
a depth of two inches. Every two days note the temperature of the 
soil and the condition of the plants in each pot. If each of these con- 
ditions of soil and moisture were found in a field, Avhich would be 
more apt to be flooded in time of rain ? In which could the air pene- 
trate more readily? In w'hich would the temperature be higher? 
Every two or three days apply equal quantities of water to each pot. 
At the end of a month remove the plant, soil and all. In which pot 
have the roots gone deeper? In which would they go deeper, the 
drained or undrained soil? 



A UNIT IN AGRICULTURE 43 

PLANT PROPAGATION. 

Ex. 28. Absorption of Water by Seeds. 

Soak a few beans in hike warm water. Notice closely the appear- 
ance of the bean at tbe end of ten minutes and at tbe end of forty 
minutes. What changes in form of surface and size of bean? With 
a hand lens, examine the bean closely to find the place where the water 
gets in. Try the same experiment, using three or more of the fol- 
lowing seeds : squash, apple, gourd, pea, corn, pumpkin. 

Ex. 29. Effects of Temperature Upon Seed Germination. 

Prepare two pieces of canton flannel a little larger than a dinner 
plate. Wet one piece and place it on tbe bottom of the plate. On this 
place a few seeds — squash, corn, or butter beans. Moisten the second 
piece of cloth, lay it over the seeds and cover with a pane of windov/ 
glass. Prepare a second germinating apparatus in precisely the same 
way. Place one of the plates in a warm place, 80 to 120 degrees if 
possible ; place the other in a cold place at or near the freezing point 
if possible. (The refrigerator may be used in summer.) At inter 
vals of two days examine each and note results. 

Ex. 30. Effects of Air Upon Seed Germination in Water. 

Fill two small wide mouthed bottles with water. Shake one thor- 
oughly and put a few seeds of different kinds in it. Remove the water 
from the other bottle and boil it. Pour it back into the bottle and 
put in it the same number and kind of seeds. Cover the surface of 
the water in the last bottle with oil, set both in the window and note 
results. In which bottle do the seeds germinate best? Why? Exer- 
cises 6, 28, 29 and 30 indicate quite clearly the conditions of seed 
germination. What are these conditions? Give an illustration from 
your own experience on the home farm or garden to show that all 
these conditions must alvMys be present when seeds germinate well. 

Ex. 31. Purity of Seeds. 

Material : clover seed from several sources, alfalfa, timothy, wheat 
and millet. The price of each sample should be ascertained. Weigh 
out three grams of seed and spread on a sheet of paper. Using a 



44 A UNIT IN AGRICULTURE 

lens, separate the seeds into three piles: (1) chaff, dirt, broken seed, 
etc.; (2) weed seed; (3) clover seed. Weigh each lot, record the 
results and save the clean seed. Considering price, quality and weeds, 
which sample should he purchased. 

Ex. 32. Propagating Bed. 

Prepare a box five or six inches deep, three feet wide and any con- 
venient length (to he determined by the size of the window). Place 
the box on a firm support and fill witli clean sand thoroughly wet. If 
the class is large and the windows small, two or more such beds will 
be needed. 

Ex. 33. Cuttings. 

Make cuttings from any or all of the following plants : geranium, 
coleus, wandering Jew, rose, heliotrope, chrysanthemum, begonia, 
California privet. Make a small hole with a stick or pencil, insert 
the cutting and then pack the sand firmly with the fingers. If the 
bed is properly made and placed, most of the cuttings should grow. 
When the cuttings are well rooted, they may be transplanted in pots 
or in the garden. 

Ex. 34. Grafting. (Demonstration by Teacher.) 

The teacher will prepare the roots, scions, knife and wax, and will 
do the work before the class, explaining each step. Each student make 
drawings of each kind of graft. 

Ex. 35. Grafting.* 

Each student provide material and make not less than six grafts. 

Ex. 36. Budding. (Demonstration.) 

The teacher will do the work, making all necessary explanations. 

Ex. 37. Budding.* 

Each student hud a definite number of plants in the school garden 
or home orchard. 



* If possible, students should do considerable grafting and budding at 
home, or elsewhere, while the method is clear in their minds. 



A UNIT IN AGPdCULTURE i5 

Ex. 38. Effects of Air Upon Seed Germination in Soil. 

Into each of two fruit jars containing rich sandy loam, put a few 

seeds of wheat, corn and beans. Moisten the soil in both Jars, screw 
the top on one tight, being sure to keep the rubber band in place. 
Leave the other open. Set both in a warm lighted place and note re- 
sults at the end of one week, two weeks, three weeks. What does this 
experiment teach? 

Ex. 39. Relation of Light to Growth. 

Prepare two fruit jars as in Exercise 38. Put one jar in a closet 
or dark basement to exclude the light, and note results. Substitute 
for the fruit jars and seeds flower pots containing growing plants. 
Are plants attracted by the light? Plan an experiment to prove. Why 
do trees grow taller when planted near together than when planted 
far apart? 

Ex. 40. Relation of Temperature to Growth. 

Note. — The work will vary with the facilities for maintaining 
fixed temperatures. Try to germinate seeds and grow plants at dif- 
ferent temperatures. Work out fairly accurate answers to such ques- 
tions as the following : What is the lowest temperature at which corn 
will germinate ? At what temperature does it germinate most quick- 
ly? etc. 

Ex. 41. Preparation and Properties of Oxygen.* 

Ex. 42. Preparation and Properties of Hydrogen.* 

Ex. 43. Preparation and Properties of Nitrogen.* 

Ex. 44. Preparation and Properties of CO2.* 

Ex. 45. Plant Food. 



* To be performeil by teacher before the class. Pupils should observe close- 
ly and record in full. 



46 A UNIT IN AGRICULTURE 

Fill seven four-inch flower pots with clean sand. Number the pots 
and place plant food in each as follows: 

No. 1. Nothing. 

No. 2. Ten grams lime. 

No. 3. Ten grams lime and one gram potassium chloride. 

No. 4. Ten grams lime and one gram acid phosphate. 

No. 5. Ten grams lime and one gram sodium nitrate. 

No. 6. Ten grams lime and one gram each of the compounds 
used in Nos. 3, 4, 5. 

No. 7. About one-half pint of manure. 

Mix the materials in each pot, then plant five kernels of wheat in 
each. Eecord the growth of the plants from day to day, noting dif- 
ferences in color and amount of growth. Let the plants grow until 
the differences are clearly apparent. 
Ex. 46. Air-Derived and Soil-Derived Elements. 

Select a dry plant or a piece of dry wood. Weigh it carefully. 
Now burn it and weigh the ashes. What per cent of the plant burned? 
This method gives a fair approximation of the amount of materials 
derived from the air and amount of materials derived from the soil. 
Review the following questions: 

Will any seed germinate in a perfectly dry soil? Will any plant 
grow without some moisture ? Why is there so little vegetation in the 
desert? What is a desert? What is meant by a drouth? What 
would be the effects on this country of a total cessation of rainfall? 

Ex. 47. Bacteria and Molds. 

Material : tliree test tubes, cotton, boiled potato, fruit or apple 
sauce, three apples, one partly decayed. 

Fill each tube about one-third full of apple sauce. Plug each 
with cotton. Set one aside. Put the other two into a pail of water 
and ]»oil for half an hour. After boiling, set one tube aside with the 
cotton undisturbed. Take the cotton from the third tube, leave it 
out half an hour or more, and then put it in again. Leave these for 
a few days, note what happens and account for different results. Is 



A UNIT m AGRICULTURE 47 

it desirable to leave canned fruit open a few minutes before covering 
after cooking? "Why? 

Prick one of the sound apples in several places with a pin. Put 
the pin into the rotten apple and then into the other sound apple. 
Repeat this in several places. Set the two sound apples aside for 
about a week. Note what happens and account for the different 
results. 

What is pasteurization, and how may it be performed at home? 
Why discard the first few streams of "foremilk ?" Why not feed just 
before milking? Explain sour bread and formation of vinegar from 
cider. What principle is employed in preserving silage? 

Ex. 48. Preparation of Bordeaux Mixture. 

Material : copper sulpliate, lime, potassium ferrocyanid, balances, 
two Mason fruit jars (quart size). 

Bordeaux mixture is prepared by using 2 to 6 pounds of copper 
sulphate to 50 gallons of water and adding enough lime to neutralize 
it. Four pounds to 50 gallons of water is a good formula for use on 
many plants. 

(a) Put five cents' worth of potassium ferrocyanid into a 4-ounce 
bottle of water and label it "poison." (b) Dissolve 3 ounces of cop- 
per sulphate in a pint of water, (c) Slake about 4 ounces of lime. 
Put 3 fluid ounces of (b) into each of the two jars. Fill the second 
jar nearly full of water. Add some of (c) to each jar and test with 
(a). If there is enough lime to neutralize the copper sulphate, (a) 
will retain its yellow color wjien a drop of it is added. If there is 
not enough lime, it will assume a decided brown red color. Add (c) 
until the test is satisfied. Then add as much more. Now fill each 
jar with water. In which case does the mixture settle more quickly 
and what is its color? These proportions give a mixture at the rate 
of 4 pounds of copper sulphate to 50 gallons of water. It is usually 
best to use double the lime called for by the test, because there is then 
less danger of injuring the plants sprayed. Note that the mixture 
containing the copper sulphate solution diluted before adding lime 



48 .i UNIT IN AGUICULTUBE 

did not settle as quickly as the other. The copper sulphate should 
always be diluted with nearly all the water before the lime is added. 
Some bulletins state that both should l)e diluted and tlien ^^\\i to- 
gether, but this way is quite as good and is easier. 

Ex. 49. Insect Net. 

Material: a handle about three feet long (an old broom stick 
will do), a piece of No, 3 galvanized wire three feet six inches long, 
and three-fourths of a yard of cheese cloth. 

Bend the wire into a ring about a foot in diameter and bend back 
about three inches of each end to insert into a hole made in the end 
of the handle. Fasten securely. Make the cheese cloth into a bag 
witli rounded bottom and just wido enough to fit the wire loop; fasten 
securely. 

Ex. 50. Killing Bottle. 

Take any small, wide-mouthed l)ottle — a quinine bottle or pickle 
bottle will do. Secure a cork that will fit the bottle closely, and that 
is long enough to handle easily. Get two cents' worth of cyanide of 
potassium, and one cent's worth of plaster of Paris. Put the cyanide 
in the bottle, cover Avith Avater and add the plaster of Paris until 
all the water is soaked U]^. Leave the bottle open in a shady place 
for an hour, when the plaster should be hard. Cork the bottle and 
label it poison. Now it is ready for use. 

Caution. — Do not breathe the fumes of the bottle. 

Ex. 51. Insect Box. 

Secure an empty cigar box. Cover tl>e bottom Avith some soft ma- 
terial as cork, cork linoleum or pith of dried corn stalks. Fasten 
this material to the bottom of the box Avith glue and cover Avith 
Avhite paper. 

If your collection is to be a permanent one, make a glass coA^er 
for the box and fit it air tight. 

Ex. 52. Spreading Board. 

The spreading board may be any length. Material: two strips of 
soft wood, li/o inches Avide and % inch thick; one piece 314 inches 



A UNIT IN AGRICULTURE 49 

wide, I/O inch thick; two cleats S^/o inches wide by % inch by 1/2 
inch; one strip of cork linolemn a little less than 1 inch wide and 
as long as the longest strips. 

Place the two narrow cleats 14 inch apart and fasten on the 
under side to the longer cleats. On the same side as the cleats, tack 
the cork or linoleum over the open space. Now tack the whole to the 
bottom board, which should fit exactly. 

Ex. 53. Killing and Mounting Insects. 

Immediately after having caught the insect, put it in the killing 
bottle and cork tightly. 

For mounting all insects except the butterfly and moth use the 
insect box. Stick a steel pin (a sewing needle is better) through the 
insect so that the insect is about I/2 an inch from the point. Now 
stick the needle about 14 i^ifli ii^to the cork at the bottom of the box. 

Write the name of the insect on a piece of white paper and fasten 
near the pin. 

To use the spreading board, do as follows : 

Kill the moth or butterfly as before, and mount within half an 
hour. Insert the pin, with the insect on it, into the cork just far 
enough so the body of the insect will be in the space between the 
boards up to the wings. Place the wings out flat on the board and 
fasten them with narrow strips of paper held by pins. Arrange the 
wings so that the rear margins of the front wings will just cover the 
front margins of the rear wings and shall be at right angles to the 
body. Now pin larger pieces of paper so as to hold all firmly until 
dry. 

Ex. 54. Study of Cuts of Beef. 

Study Farmers' Bulletin No. 71. Copy drawing of ox showing 
different cuts of beef. 

Ex. 55. Study of the Egg. 

Each student should be provided with two hen's eggs. With the 
ends of the egg in the hollow of the hands, press firmly. Account 



50 A UNIT IN AGRICULTURE 

for the great strength of tlie slicll. Break a fresh uncooked egg in a 
saucer or plate by separating the shell in the middle. Observe: 

1. The germinal disc (a light colored spot usually found on the 

upper surface of the yolk). What is the function of this 
part? 

2. The transparent albumen or white of the egg. 

Examine the shell and find the air space. Where is the air space ? 
Of what use is it? Observe the two membranes best seen at the air 
space where they separate. 

Examine a piece of the shell with the microscope, and observe the 
pores. What would be the effect on the chick while in the egg if the 
shell were covered with varnish? 

Note the color of the egg. Ascertain whether the eggs from any 
particular hen are all of the same color. 

Boil the egg and carefully cut lengthwise through the middle. Ob- 
serve all closely and make drawing of either half, showing and naming 
all parts. Make an exact drawing, omitting nothing. Use colored 
crayon, if convenient. 

Ex. 56. Poultry House. 

Bead Farmers' Bulletins, Nos. 225, 227. Make drawings accord- 
ing to scale of (a) floor plans: (b) cross section of poultry house for 
a given number of chickens. 



A UNIT IN AGRICULTURE 



51 



Ex. 57. Judging of Draft Horse by Score Card. 

In accordance with the score card given below, observe a draft horse and 
record your observations. (The score cards in this manual are those used by 
the students in the College of Agriculture, University 'of Missouri.) 



SCALE OF POINTS 



Age, estimated yrs., actual... 

GENERAL APl'EAKANX'E— 24 Points 

Height, estimated hands; actual. 



Weight, over 1600 lbs. in good condition; estimated 
lbs. , score according to age 



Form, broad, massive, symmetrical, blocky 

Qualitj', refined; bone clean, large strong; tendons clean, 
defined, prominent; skin and hair fine; "feather," il 
present, silky 



Action, energetic, straight, true, elastic; walk, stridt 
long, quick, regular; trot, free balanced, rapid 

Temperament, energetic ; disposition good 



HEAD AND NECK— S Points 

Head, proportionate size, clean cut, well carried; profile, 
straight 



Muzzle, neat; 
firm 



nostrils large, flexible; lips thin, even, 



Eyes, full, bright, clear, large, same color 

Forehead, broad, full 

Ears, medium size; tapering, well carried, alert. 
Lower Jaw, angles wide, space clean 



Neck, medium length, well muscled, arched; throat- 
latch fine, windpipe large 



FOBEQL'ARTERS— 25 Points 

Shoulders, moderate height, extending well back, mod- 
erately sloping, heavily and smoothly muscled, e.\- 
tending into back 

Arms, short, heavily muscled, thrown back, well set. .. . 

Forearm, long, wide, clean, heavily muscled 



Knees, straight, wide, deep, strong, clean, well sup- 
ported 

Cannons, short, wide, clean; tendons large, clean and 
well defined, set back 

Fetlocks, wide, straight, strong, clean 

Pasterns, moderate slope and length, strong, clean 

Feet, large, even size, sound; horn dense, waxy; soles 
concave; bars strong, full; frog large, elastic; heels 
wide, strongly supported 

Legs, viewed in front, a perpendicular line from the 
point of the shoulder should fall upon the center of 
the knee, cannon, pastern and foot; from the side, a 
perpendicular line dropping from the center of the 
elbow joint should fall upon the center of the knee 
and pastern joints and back of hoof 



Pos- 
sible 
Score 



Points Deficient 



Stu- 
dents 
Score 



52 



A UNIT IN AGRICULTURE 



Ex. 57. Judging of Draft Horses by Score Card (continued). 





Pos- 
sible 
Score 


Points Deficient 


SCALE OF POINTS 


Stu- 
dents 
Score 


Cor- ■ 
rected 
Score 


B()1>Y— 10 Points 

Withers, moderate height, smooth, extending well back. 

Cliesst, deep, breast bone low; girth large 

Kibs, deep, well sprung, closely ribbed to hip 


1 
2 

1 

1 
2 

2 
6 

1 

2 

C 
3 






Loin, broad, short, heavily muscled 








IIINDQl'ARTERS— 33 Points 




Croup, long, wide, heavily muscled, not markedly droop- 




Tail, attached high, well carried 

Tliighs, deep, broad, heavily muscled 

Quarters, deep, heavily muscled 




Gaskins (lower thighs), long, wide, heavily muscled.... 




Cannons, short, wide, clean; tendons large, clean, de- 










Pasterns, moderate slope and length, strong clean 

Feet, large, even size, sound; horn dense, waxy; soles, 
concave, bars, strong, full; frog, large, elastic; heels, 
wide, strongly supported 

Legs, view from behind, a perpendicular line from the 
point of the buttock should fall upon the center of the 
hock, cannon and foot; from the side a perpendicular 
line from the hip joint should fall upon the center of 
the foot and divide the gaskin in the middle; and a 
perpendicular line from the point of the buttock 
should run parallel with the line of the cannon 




Total 


100 











Disqualificatioiii 



Animal Date .... 

Student Standing . 



A UNIT JN AGRICULTURE 



53 



Ex. 58. Judging of Light Horses by Score Card. 

In accordance with the score card given below, ol^crvc a light horse and 
record your observations. 



SCALE OF POINTS 



Age, estimated yrs., actual yis. 

GENERAL APPEARANCE — 28 Points 

Weight, estimated lbs. ; actual lbs. 

Height, estimated hands; actual hands 

Form, symmetrical, smooth, stylish 

Quality, refined; bone clean, fine; tendons clean, defined; 

hair and skin fine 

Action, energetic, straight, true, elastic; walk, stride 

long, quick, regular; trot, free, balanced, rapid 



Temperament, active; disposition good, stylish carriage. 

HEAD AND NECK— 8 Points 

Head, proportionate size, clean cut, well carried, profile 
straight 

Muzzle, neat; nostrils large, flexible; lips thin, even, firm 

Eyes, full, bright, clear, large, same color 

Foreliead, broad, full 

Ears, medium size, tapering, well carried, alert 



Lower Jaw, angles medium wide, space clean 

Neek, long, well muscled, arched; throat-latch tint 
clean; windpipe large 



FOREQUARTERS— 20 Points 

Slioulder, long, sloping, smoothly muscled, extending 
into back 

Arms, short, strongly muscled, thrown back, well set... 

Forearm, long, wide, clean, strongly muscled 

Knees, straight, wide, deep, strong, clean, strongly sup- 
ported 

Cannons, short, wide, clean, tendons large, clean, de- 
lined, set back 

Fetlocks, wide, straight, strong, clean 

I'asternsi, long, sloping, strong, clean 

Feet, medium and even size, sound, horn dense, waxy; 
soles concave; bars strong, full; frog large, elastic; 
heels wide, strongly supported 

Legs, view in front, a perpendicular line from the point 
of the shoulder should fall upon the center of the 
knee, cannon, pastern and foot; from the side, a per- 
pendicular line dropping from the center of the elbow 
joint should fall upon the center of the knee and pas- 
tern ioints and back of hoof 



Pos- 
sible 
Score 



Points Deficient 



Stu- 
dents 
Score 


Cor- 
rected 
Score 







54 



A UNIT IN AGRICULTURE 



Ex. 58. Judging of Light Horses by Score Card (continued). 





Pos- 
sible 
Score 


Points Deficient 


SCALE OF POINTS 


Stu- 
dents 
Score 


Cor- 
rected 
Score 


BODY— 10 Points 

Withers, moderate height, smooth, extending well back. 


1 

1 

1 

1 

1 
3 

4 
3 






Ribs, deep, well sprung, closely ribbed to hip 




I..oins, broad, short, wide, strongly and smoothly mus- 




Underline, long, low; flanks well let down 

HINDQUARTERS— 31 Points 




Croup, long, wide, muscular, not markedly drooping. . . . 

Tall, attached high, well carried 

Tliighs, deep, broad, strongly muscled 








Gasltins (lower thighs), long, wide, strongly muscled... 






Cannons, short, wide, clean; tendons larg«, clean and 
well defined, set back 

Fetlocks, wide, straight, strong, clean 








Feet, medium and even size, sound; horn dense, waxy; 
soles concave; bars strong, full; frog large, elastic; 




'L.egs, viewed from behind, a perpendicular line from the 
point of the buttock should fall upon the center of the 

line from the hip joints should fall upon the center 
of the foot and divide the gaskin in the middle; and 
a perpendicular line from the point of the buttock 
should run parallel with the lines of the cannon 




Total 


100 











Disqualifications 



Animal Date 

Student Standing . 



A UNIT IN AGRICULTURE 



55 



Ex. 59. Judging of Beef Cattle by Score Card. 

In accordance with the score card given below, observe a beef steer and 
record your observations. 



SCALE OF POINTS 



Age, estimated yrs., actual yrs. 

GENERAL APPEARANCE — 26 Pointe 

Weight, estimated lbs., actual lbs., score 

according to age 

Form, straight top line and underline; deep, broad, low. 
medium length, symmetrical, compact, standing 
squarely on legs 

Quality, bone of firm texture, fine skin, silky hair, clear- 
ly defined features and Joints; mellow touch 

Condition, thick, even covering of firm flesh, especially 
in regions of valuable cuts; indicating finish; light in 
offal 



IIEAI> AND NECK — 8 Points 

Muzzle, good size, lips thin, nostrils large and well 
apart ; jaws wide 

I'nce, short, broad, profile straight 

Forehead, broad 

Eyes, large, full, clear, bright ; 

Ears, well carried, fine, medium size 

Neck, thick, short, throat clean; dewlap slight 

FOREQl'ARTERS — 13 Points 

Hhoulder Vein, smooth, full 



Shoulders, smoothly covered with firm flesh, compact... 

Brisket, broad, full, breast wide 

Legrs, straight, short, strong, wide apart, forearm full, 
shank fine, feet sound 

BODY — 33 Points 

Chest, deep, broad, girth large, foreflank full 



Crops, full, thick, even with shoulders 

Back, broad, straight, medium length; thickly, evenly 

and firmly fleshed 

Ribs, deep, well sprung, closely set, thickly, evenly and 

firmly fleshed 

Loin, broad, straight, thickly, evenly and firmly fleshed. 
Flanks, full, low 



Pos- 
sible 
Score 



Points Deficient 



Stu- 
dents 
Score 



Cor- 
rected 
Score 



56 



A UNIT IN AGRICULTURE 



Ex. 59. Judging of Beef Cattle by Score Card (continued). 





Pos- 
sible 
Score 


Points Deficient 


SCALE OF POINTS 


Stu- 
dents 
Score 


Cor- 
rected 
Score 


HINDQUARTERS— 33 Points 

Hips, smoothly covered, proportionate width 


1 
1 
4 

2 






Rump, long, level, width well carried back; thickly, 
evenly and firmly fleshed 




Pin Bones, wide apart, not prominent 




Tail, fine, tapering, medium length 

Tliigrhs, deep, wide, well fleshed 

Twist, deep, broad, well filled 




I.eg8, straight, short, strong, shank smooth, feet sound. 




Total 


100 





Disqualifications 



Animal . Bate 

Student Standing . 



A UNIT IN AGRICULTURE 



57 



Ex. 60. Judging of Dairy Cattle by Score Card. 

In accordance with the score card given below, observe a dairy cow and 
record your observations. 



SCALE OF POINTS 



Age, estimated yrs., actual. 



. yrs. 
.lbs. 



GENERAL APPEARANCE— 23 Points 

Weight, estimated lbs., actual 

score according to age 

Form, deep, low, wedgfe shape as viewed from front, 
side and top; standing squarely on legs 

Quality, bone of firm texture; hair fine, soft; skin mel- 
low, loose, medium thiclvness; secretion yellow 



Condition, healthy* spare fleshed 

Style, active, graceful carriage 

Temperament, alert, tractable; highly developed nervous 
system perfectly controlled, indicated by clear placid 
eyes, marked refinement about head, neck and fore- 
quarters, prominent backbone and normal activity.... 

HEAD AND NECK— 10 Points 

Muzzle, good size, lips thin, nostril large and wide apart, 
jaws wide and strong 



Face, medium length, broad, slightly dished 

Eyes, large, full, clear. l)right, placid 

Forehead, broad, slightly dished 

Ears, well carried, fine, medium size, yellow inside 

Neck, medium length, fine, throat clean, dewlap slight. 

FOREQl.ARTERS— 6 Points 

Slioulders, light, narrow at top 



Brisket, light 

Legs, straight, short, strong, shank fine, feet sound. 



BODY— 22 Points 

Back, strong, prominent spinal processes, wide apart. 



Chest, deep and moderately wide, girth large. 
Ribs, deep, wide apart, well sprung 



Loins, broad, strong, with_ roomy coupling. 
Barrel, deep, wide, very capacious 



Pos- 
sible 
Score 



Points Deficient 



Stu- 
dents 
Score 



Cor- 
rected 
Score 



58 



A UNIT IN AGRICULTURE 



Ex. 60. Judging of Dairy Cattle by Score Card (continued). 



SCALE OF POINTS 



HINDQUAKTEKS — 39 Points 

Hips, wide apart, prominent; level with back. 



Rump, long-, wide, straight or slightly rising; pelvis 

roomy 

Pin Bones, high, wide apart 

Tail, set high, long, tapering, heavy switch 



Thighs, thin, long, wide apart; twist very open 

Escutcheon, spreading over thighs, extending high and 
wide; large thigh ovals 

Udder, broad, symmetrical, extending well forward, well 
up between the thighs, free from fleshiness, well held 
up, and quarters even in size 

Teats, good size, evenly placed 

Mill{ Veins, large, tortuous, branching milk wells large, 
numerous 

Legs, straight, short, strong; shank fine, feet sound.... 



Total 



Pos- 
sible 
Score 



Points Deficient 



Stu- 
dents 
Score 



Cor- 
rected 
Score 



Disqualifications 



Animal Date 

Student Standing . 



A UNIT IN AGRICULTURE 



59 



Ex. 61. Judging of Mutton Sheep by Score Card. 

In accordance with the score card given below, observe a mutton shee|> 
and record your observations. 





Pos- 
sible 
Score 


Points Deficient 


SCALE OF POINTS 


Stu- 
dents 
Score 


Cor- 
rected 
Score 


Age, estimated yrs., actual y is. 

GENERAL APPEARANCE— 26 Points 

Weight, estimated lbs., actual lbs. 



8 
C 


1 

1 

1 

1 

1 
3 

4 

4 

C 


r 

4 
G 






Form, straight, top line and underline, deep, broad, low, 
medium length, symmetrical, compact, standing 




Quality, bone of firm texture, fine skin, silky hair, 
clearly defined features and joints, mellow touch. 




Condition, thick, even, covering of fiini flesh, especially 
in regions of valuable cuts, indicating finish; light in 
offal 




HEAD AND NECK— 8 I'oinls 

Muzzle, good size, lips thin, nostrils large and well 
apart, jaws wide 

Face, short, broad, profile straiglit 












FOREQUARTERS— 10 Points 

Shoulder Vein, smooth, full 

Shoulders, smoothly covered with firm flesh; compact... 

Brisket, broad, full; breast wide 

Legs, straight, short, strong, wide apart; forearm full; 

BODY— 25 Points 

Chest, deep, broad; girth large; foreflank full 

Back, broad, straight, medium length, thickly, evenly 




Ribs, deep, well sprung, closely set, thickly, evenly and 




Loin, broad, straight, thickly, evenly and firmly fleshed. 
Flanks, full, low 




HINDQUARTERS — 20 Points 




Rump, long, level, width well carried back; thickly, 
evenly and firmly fleshed 




Thighs, deep, wide, well fleshed 




Twist, deep, broad, well filled 




Legs, straight, short, strong; shank short but sound. ... 





60 



.1 UNIT IN AGRICULTURE 



Ex. 61. Judging of Mutton Sheep by Score Card (continued). 





Pos- 
sible 
Score 


Points Deficient 


SCALE OF POINTS 


Stu- 
dents 
Score 


Cor- 
rected 
Score 


TLEKCE AND SKIN— H Points 

Quantity <»f' Wool, long, dense, even, well distributed 

over body 

Quality of Wool, fine, soft, pure, even, crimp close and 


3 
3 

2 
3 






Condition of Wool, bright, strong, clean, yolk abundant. 
8kin, pink color, clear 








Total 


100 











Disqualifications 



Animal Date 

Student Standing . 



A 'UNIT IN AGRICULTURE 



61 



Ex. 62. Judging of Swine by Score Card. 

In accordance with the score card given below, observe swine of different 
breeds and record your observations. 



SCALE OF POINTS 



Age, estimated yrs., actual yrs. 

GENERAL APPEARANCE— 26 Points 

Weight estimated lbs., actual lbs., 

score according to age 

Form, arched hack, straight underline; deep, broad, low, 

medium length, symmetrical, compact, standing 

squarely on legs 

Qualit.v, bone of firm texture, fine skin, silky hair. 

clearly defined features and joints; mellow touch 

Condition, thick, even, covering of firm flesh, especially 

in regions of valuable cuts; indicating finish; light in 

offal 

HEAD AND NECK— 8 Points 

Snout, short, not coarse 

Face, short, broad, cheeks full 

E.ves, large, full, clear, bright, wide apart, not obscured 

by wrinkles 

Forehead, broad 

Ears, well carried, fine, medium size 

Jowl, full, firm, broad, neat 

Ne; li, thick, medium length, somewhat arched, neatly 

joined to shoulders 

FOREQUARTERS — 10 Points 

Shoulders, broad, deep, full, compact, covered with firm 

' flesh 

Breast, wide, deep, breast bone advanced 

Leg's, straight, short, strong, wide apart, shank strong 

and smooth, feet sound 

BODY — 33 Points 

Chest, deep, broad, girth large, foreflank full 

Back, broad, slightly arched, medium length, thickly, 

evenly and firmly fleshed 

Sides, deep, medium length, closely ribbed, thickly, 

evenly and firmly fleshed 

.Loins, broad, strong, medium length, thickly, evenly 

and firmly fleshed 

Belly, straight, proportionate width, firmly fleshed 

Flanks, full, low 

■HINDQUARTERS— 23 Points 

Hips, smoothly covered, proportionate width 

Bump, long, rounding slightly, from loin to root of tail; 

width well carried back, thickly, evenly and firmly 

fleshed 

Hams, deep, wide, thickly, evenly and firmly fleshed.... 
Legs, straight, short, strong; shank strong and smooth, 

feet sound 



Total 



Pos- 
sible 
Score 



Points Deficient 



Stu- 
dents 
Score 



Cor- 
rected 
Score 



Disqualifita t io ns 



Animal Date 

Student Standing . 



62 A UNIT IN AGRICULTURE 

FARM MANAGEMENT. 
Ex. 63. Plan of Farm. 

Take the measurements of the home farm. Make plot of farm; 
scale, one inch = 660 feet. Show location of cultivated fields, 
pastures, timber, barn lot, orchard and garden. Show location of all 
buildings and all wells, ponds, or springs. 
Ex. 64. Plan of Home. 

Measure and make to scale a floor plan and cross section of your 
home. If you can, make a good drawing of the home. 

Ex. 65. Plan of Barn. 

Having read the references assigned by the teacher and knowing 
the kind and number of animals to be provided for, make ground plan 
of barn; scale, one inch = 6 feet. 
Ex. 66. Examination of Fertilizers. 

Study small samples of all fertilizers available. Test each with 
litmus paper. Learn name, composition and price of each. Observe 
color, odor and form. 

Ex. 67. Experimental Test of Fertilizers. 

This experiment takes time and can not be completed before Sep- 
tember. If there is no school garden, ask some farmer in the neigh- 
borhood to rent you the necessary land. Lay off one-half acre of land 
in plots, each plot being precisely one-tenth of the whole, or one- 
twentieth of an acre. Mark the division points by stakes set well in 
the ground and number the plots from one to ten. 

On plot No. 1, sow nothing. 

On plot No. 2, 8 lbs. of nitrate of soda and 16 lbs. of acid phos- 
phate. 

On plot No. 3, 8 lbs. of nitrate of soda and 4 lbs. of muriate of 
potash. 

On plot No. 4, 8 lbs. of nitrate of -soda, 16 lbs. of acid phosphate 
and 4 lbs. of muriate of potash. 

On plot No. 5, 20 lbs. of any commercial fertilizer used in the 
neighborhood. 

On plot No. 6, nothing. 

On plot No. 7, 500 lbs. of barnyard manure. 



A UNIT IN AGRICULTURE 63 

On plot No, 8, 8 lbs. of nitrate of soda. 

On plot No. 9, 16 lbs. of acid phosphate. 

On plot No. 10, 4 lbs. of muriate of potash. 

Do this work in early spring. Plant the entire plot in corn or 
potatoes and cultivate carefully. In the fall, gather and weigh the 
crop. Which plot made the best yield? Which made the poorest? 
Arrange the plots according to the yield. Considering the market 
price of the corn or potatoes, did it pay to fertilize? Which plot 
shows the highest per cent of profit ? 
Ex. 68. The Home Garden. 

Make drawing of plan for a vegetable garden to supply the home 
with a succession of vegetables. Indicate the area planted to differ- 
ent vegetables, the approximate time of planting, distance between 
rows, method of planting and cultivating. 

Note. — It is important that the garden be arranged for cultiva- 
tion by horse power. 

Ex. 69. Farm Forestry. 

Visit the woods on a farm. Find out what trees the method of 

cutting has favored, and what are the leading kinds, with the pro- 
portion of each. Learn the names of the common trees. Note that 
much of the cutting in woods is done in such a way as to leave the 
undesirable trees — the tree weeds. 
Ex. 70. Agricultural Manufacturing. 

Visit a creamery, vinegar factory, evaporator, canning factory or 
other similar industry. Note the different operations and refer to the 
scientific principles involved. 
Ex. 71. The Babcock Test for Butter-Fat in Milk. 

This exercise should first be performed by the teacher as a demon- 
stration exercise and then by the individual students. 

Caution. — Examine the apparatus and read the directions care- 
fully before using it. When pouring the acid into the milk, be sure 
that the bottle is not pointed toward yourself or any other person. 

Mix the milk by pouring it back and forth between two vessels 
several times. Place the small end of the pipette near the center of 



64 A UNIT IN AGRICULTURE 

tlie milk and suck up the milk above the 17.6 c.c. mark. Quickly put 
the index finger over the upper end of the pipette; and, by releasing 
the pressure, allow the milk to run out until its upj^er surface is even 
with 17.6 c.c. mark when the pipette is held straight up and down. 

Place the point of the pipette a short distance into the test-bottle 
neck, holding it against the glass and with both pipette and bottle at 
an angle. Eemove the finger to allow the milk to flow into the bottle. 
Be sure to get every drop of the milk, taking care to drain the pipette 
and to blow the last drop into the bottle. 

After all the samples of milk to Ije tested have been measured, 
the acid should be added. Fill the acid measure to the 17.5 c.c. mark 
with acid that is neither very cold nor very hot. Pour this into the 
bottle with the milk, holding the bottle in a slanting position. The 
acid will then carry down any milk left in the neck, follow the glass 
surface to the bottom of the bottle and form a layer under the milk. 

Hold the bottle by the neck and give it a circular motion for a 
few minutes, mixing the milk and acid until no milk or clear acid is 
visible. By this time the contents will be dark colored and hot. This 
change is due to the acid dissolving all the solid constituents of the 
milk except the fat, which it does not affect. 

Place the bottles in the machine so that each one will have an- 
other directly opposite, to keep the machine in balance. Whirl the 
bottles five minutes at the proper speed for the machine in use. Then 
stop it; and, with the pipette or other convenient means, add hot 
water to each bottle until the contents come up to the bottom of the 
neck. Whirl two minutes. Add hot water enough to bring the top of 
the fat nearly to the top of the graduations on the neck of the bottles. 
Whirl one minute. The fat should then form a clear column in the 
neck of the bottle. 

Reading the Percentage. Keep the fat warm so that it will be 
in the fluid condition. Hold the bottle by the upper end of the neck, 
letting it hang in a perpendicular position on the level with the eye. 
Eead the graduations at the extreme top and bottom of the fat column. 
The difference between these is the percentage of fat in the milk. 



m 



73 '^' 



One copy del. to Cat. Div. 



